Shenyang · History & Resistance

The Dawn of Liao River Civilization: Ancient Human Activity and Early Settlements in Shenyang

The history of human activity in the Shenyang area can be traced back to the Paleolithic era. In the Xinmin area north of Shenyang, archaeologists have discovered Paleolithic cultural remains dating back approximately 110,000 years. The chipped stone tools unearthed there, including stone cores and flakes, indicate that ancient humans were already thriving along the Liao River basin at that time. Entering the Neolithic era, the cultural landscape of the Shenyang area grew increasingly rich, with the Xinle Site standing as the most representative cultural landmark.

Located in the northern suburbs of Shenyang, the Xinle Site dates back approximately 7,200 years and belongs to the early Neolithic cultural remains. The jet artifacts, graphite, microliths, bone tools, and pottery impressed with "zigzag" patterns unearthed at the site showcase the unique survival wisdom of the ancestors who lived along the Liao River. Particularly precious is the wooden bird carving discovered at the site—a bird-shaped artifact carved from carbonized wood, simple yet vivid in form. It is regarded by scholars as physical evidence of the Xinle people's totemic worship and is also one of the earliest wooden carvings in northern China. The discovery of the Xinle culture pushed the history of human civilization in the Shenyang area forward by several thousand years, proving that the Liao River basin, like the Yellow River and Yangtze River basins, is one of the important birthplaces of Chinese civilization.

Entering the Bronze Age, the Shenyang area fell within the distribution range of the Gaotai Mountain culture and the Upper Xinle culture. In the hinterland of Shenyang and its surrounding areas, archaeologists have successively discovered numerous Bronze Age sites, unearthing artifacts such as pottery li vessels, pottery ding tripods, and stone molds, reflecting that settled agriculture and livestock raising had already become the primary means of subsistence. Although these early settlements were limited in scale, they laid the foundation for millennia of population aggregation and cultural integration in the Shenyang region.

Yan and Qin's Liaodong Commandery: The Historical Starting Point of Shenyang's Administrative Establishment

In the early 3rd century BC, Qin Kai, a general of the Yan state, drove the Donghu people northward, expanding territory by a thousand li and establishing five commanderies in the Liao River basin: Shanggu, Yuyang, Youbeiping, Liaoxi, and Liaodong. The Shenyang region was formally brought under the jurisdiction of the Yan state's Liaodong Commandery, marking the beginning of Shenyang's clearly defined administrative establishment. The Yan state built the Great Wall along the eastern bank of the Liao River and set up barrier fortifications, making the Shenyang area a frontline outpost for the Central Plains dynasties' management of the Northeast.

After Qin unified the six states, it followed the Yan system and continued to establish the Liaodong Commandery. During the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, the Liaodong Commandery governed counties such as Xiangping and Xinchang, with the Shenyang region falling under their jurisdiction. In Shenyang and its surrounding areas, archaeologists have discovered numerous Han dynasty city sites and tombs, and unearthed artifacts such as cord-patterned pottery jars, bronze mirrors, and wuzhu coins, confirming the Han dynasty's effective governance over the Liaoshen region. Notably, remains of a Han dynasty city site were unearthed near the Shenyang Imperial Palace, indicating that the present-day urban area of Shenyang already had a considerable population settlement and administrative operations two thousand years ago.

During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the Liaoshen region became a focal point of contention among the Central Plains regimes, the Xianbei, and the Goguryeo forces. The Goguryeo regime once built mountain fortresses in the eastern mountainous areas of Shenyang. Among them, the Qingzhuangzi Mountain Fortress Site, located in Dongling District (now Hunnan District) of Shenyang, was constructed along the mountain with stone walls. The existing perimeter is about 1,000 meters, serving as tangible evidence of the military defense system in the Shenyang area during this period. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Emperor Taizong and Emperor Gaozong of Tang launched multiple eastern campaigns against Goguryeo, and the Liaoshen region was eventually incorporated into the Tang territory. The Tang established the Andong Protectorate here, and the administrative structure of the Shenyang area continued.

Shenzhou in the Liao, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties: From an Earthen City to a Regional Central City

In the early 10th century, the Khitan people established the Liao Dynasty and carried out large-scale migration and land reclamation in the Liao River basin. Emperor Taizu of Liao, Yelü Abaoji, built an earthen city at the location of present-day Shenyang city center. As it was situated north of the Hun River (historically known as Shenshui), it was named "Shenzhou" according to the ancient Chinese naming principle of "south of a mountain and north of water being yang." This officially marked the beginning of Shenyang's urban history. The Liao-era Shenzhou city had a perimeter of about 4 li, with temples and government offices built within, making it an important ruling center for the Liao Dynasty in the Liaodong region.

The most famous historical relic of Liao-era Shenzhou is the Wugou Jingguang Relic Pagoda. Located on Tawan Street in today's Huanggu District of Shenyang, this pagoda was first built in the 13th year of the Chongxi reign of the Liao Dynasty (1044 AD). It is a thirteen-story dense-eave brick pagoda, approximately 33 meters tall. The pagoda has eight sides, each featuring niches with carved seated Buddhas, attendant bodhisattvas, and flying apsaras, with smooth lines and lifelike depictions. Precious cultural relics such as gilded bronze Buddha statues and relics have been unearthed from the pagoda, serving as direct evidence of the flourishing Liao Dynasty Buddhist culture in the Shenyang region.

After the Jin Dynasty replaced the Liao Dynasty, Shenzhou continued to serve as a key stronghold in eastern Liaoning. In the late Jin Dynasty, as Mongol cavalry swept southward, the city of Shenzhou suffered severe destruction amid the flames of war. After the Yuan Dynasty unified the country, Shenzhou was temporarily abolished, but was later reestablished as Shenyang Route in the second year of Yuanzhen (1296), with the city walls rebuilt. During the Yuan Dynasty, the jurisdiction of Shenyang Route far exceeded that of present-day Shenyang, becoming an important prefecture-level administrative division under the Liaoyang Province. In the late Yuan and early Ming periods, the city walls of Shenyang Route lay in ruins and the population dwindled, yet its strategic geographical importance remained undiminished.

Shenyang Guard in the Ming Dynasty: Military-Administrative Integration and the Foundation of Urban Layout

After the founding of the Ming Dynasty, to consolidate northeastern border defense, a brick city was rebuilt on the former site of the Yuan Dynasty's Shenyang Route in the 21st year of Hongwu (1388), establishing Shenyang Guard under the jurisdiction of the Liaodong Regional Military Commission. The Ming Dynasty Shenyang Guard city had a circumference of approximately nine li and thirty bu, with city walls two zhang and five chi high, and featured four gates: Yongning Gate to the east, Bao'an Gate to the south, Yongchang Gate to the west, and Anding Gate to the north. Within the city, a cross-shaped main street divided the urban area into four quadrants, with government offices, the Confucian Temple, bell and drum towers, and temples and monasteries distributed in sequence, laying the foundation for the basic layout of Shenyang's old city.

Shenyang Guard was not only a key node in the military defense system, but also the administrative pivot for the Ming Dynasty's governance of the Northeast. The Ming court stationed heavy troops here, established guard schools, and spread Central Plains culture. The Chang'an Temple within Shenyang Guard City, first built during the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty, is the oldest surviving wooden structure complex in Shenyang. Although the Mahavira Hall, Heavenly Kings Hall, and other buildings within the temple have undergone later renovations, they still retain Ming Dynasty architectural style. The painted beams and bracket sets in the main hall showcase the superb architectural craftsmanship of the Ming Dynasty in the Northeast region.

The establishment of Shenyang Guard in the Ming Dynasty elevated Shenyang from an ordinary route city to an important military stronghold in the Liaodong region. However, with the decline of Ming Dynasty power and the rise of the Later Jin (predecessor of the Qing Dynasty), Shenyang's fate was about to undergo a historic turning point.

The Cradle of the Qing Dynasty: The Rise of Shengjing City and Its Status as an Auxiliary Capital

In the tenth year of the Mandate of Heaven (1625), Nurhaci, the Khan of the Later Jin, overruled dissenting opinions and moved the capital from Liaoyang to Shenyang, beginning construction of the palace. The Later Jin moved its capital to Shenyang not only because of its central location and convenient transportation, but also due to its sturdy fortifications and abundant resources. Nurhaci built the Grand Administration Hall and the Ten Kings Pavilion within Shenyang City as venues for grand ceremonies and political deliberations. The Grand Administration Hall is an octagonal, double-eaved pavilion with a pointed roof, unique in design and resembling a tent, reflecting the fusion of Manchu nomadic hunting culture with traditional palace architecture.

In the eighth year of Tiancong (1634), Huang Taiji renamed Shenyang "Tianjuan Shengjing," abbreviated as Shengjing. In the first year of Chongde (1636), Huang Taiji proclaimed himself emperor in Shengjing and changed the state name to the Great Qing. Thereafter, Shengjing, as the capital of the Qing Dynasty, witnessed the key transition of the dynasty from a regional regime to a nationwide empire. Huang Taiji added the Chongzheng Hall, Phoenix Tower, Qingning Palace, and other buildings to the original palace complex, forming the current layout of the Shenyang Imperial Palace with its eastern, central, and western routes. The Phoenix Tower, three stories high, was the tallest building in Shengjing at the time; from its top one could overlook the entire city, earning it the reputation of "Phoenix Tower Morning Sun," listed as one of the Eight Scenic Spots of Shengjing.

In the first year of Shunzhi (1644), after the Qing army entered the pass and established the capital in Beijing, Shengjing served as the auxiliary capital, with institutions such as the Shengjing General and Fengtian Prefecture governing the northeastern region. Emperors of successive Qing dynasties placed great importance on Shengjing; Emperors Kangxi, Qianlong, Jiaqing, and Daoguang made eleven eastern tours to Shengjing to pay homage at ancestral tombs and inspect the palace. Emperor Qianlong especially issued multiple decrees to expand the Shenyang Imperial Palace, bringing it to its peak scale. The Shenyang Imperial Palace now houses 114 buildings and covers an area of 60,000 square meters, making it one of only two surviving imperial palace complexes in China, echoing the Forbidden City in Beijing and together forming a complete lineage of Chinese palace architecture culture.

Qing Zhaoling and Qing Fuling: Exemplary Imperial Tombs of World Cultural Heritage

Qing Zhaoling, located in the northern suburbs of Shenyang, is the joint mausoleum of Qing Emperor Taizong Huang Taiji and Empress Xiaoduanwen of the Borjigit clan. Construction began in the 8th year of the Chongde reign (1643) and was largely completed in the 8th year of the Shunzhi reign (1651). Zhaoling covers an area of 3.3 million square meters, making it the largest and best-preserved of the three imperial tombs outside the Shanhai Pass from the Qing Dynasty. The tomb complex follows the layout of "front court, rear chamber," with structures arranged from south to north: the Spirit Bridge, Stone Archway, Main Red Gate, Spirit Path, Stone Statues, Stele Pavilion, Square City, Long'en Hall, Ming Tower, and Precious Mound. Flanking the Spirit Path are six pairs of stone statues—stone lions, xiezhi (mythical beasts), qilin, horses, camels, and elephants—exquisitely carved and imposing in form. Long'en Hall is the main structure of the tomb complex, featuring a double-eaved hip-and-gable roof covered with yellow glazed tiles. Inside, spirit tablets of Huang Taiji and his empress are enshrined. Beneath the Precious Mound lies the underground palace, which, though unexcavated, is recorded in historical documents to contain Huang Taiji's cinerary urn and numerous burial goods.

Qing Fuling, located in the eastern suburbs of Shenyang, is the joint mausoleum of Qing Emperor Taizu Nurhaci and Empress Xiaocigao of the Yehe Nara clan. Construction began in the 3rd year of the Tiancong reign (1629) and was completed in the 8th year of the Shunzhi reign (1651). Fuling covers approximately 190,000 square meters, backed by Tianzhu Mountain and facing the Hun River, with terrain rising gradually from south to north. The most striking feature of Fuling is the "One Hundred and Eight Steps"—a flight of 108 blue stone steps ascending in three sections, symbolizing the 36 Heavenly Spirits and 72 Earthly Fiends, meant to ward off evil and protect the imperial tomb. After ascending the steps, you will see the stele pavilion, Long'en Gate, Long'en Hall, Ming Tower, and other structures arranged in sequence, ultimately reaching the treasure mound. The Fuling Tomb buildings are constructed along the mountain terrain, rising layer by layer with majestic grandeur, exemplifying the perfect integration of ancient Chinese mausoleum architecture with natural landscapes.

In 2004, the Zhao Mausoleum and the Fuling Tomb, as components of the "Three Tombs of Shengjing," were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. These two mausoleums are not only historical monuments to the founding emperors of the Qing Dynasty but also invaluable physical materials for studying Manchu funeral customs, architectural art, and political systems.

The Urban Layout and Cultural Symbols of Shengjing Ancient City

During the Qing Dynasty, Shengjing City underwent large-scale renovation and expansion based on the Ming Dynasty brick city. In the fifth year of Tiancong (1631), Huang Taiji changed the four gates of the Ming Dynasty to eight gates, namely Fujin Gate (Great East Gate), Neizhi Gate (Small East Gate), Huaiyuan Gate (Great West Gate), Wairang Gate (Small West Gate), Desheng Gate (Great South Gate), Tianyou Gate (Small South Gate), Fusheng Gate (Great North Gate), and Dizai Gate (Small North Gate). The eight gates corresponded to the positions of the Eight Banners, and the city's streets formed a "well" (jing) shaped pattern, dividing the urban area into nine districts. The imperial palace was located slightly east of the center, with the bell tower and drum tower positioned to the north and south of the city center respectively, creating a unique urban spatial form of "the imperial palace at the center, surrounded by the Eight Banners."

Beyond the Shenyang Imperial Palace, the core landmarks of Shengjing City also included defensive structures such as city walls, corner towers, and barbicans. Although most of the city walls were demolished during the Republican era, today's Shenyang still preserves the rebuilt gate towers of Huaiyuan Gate and Fujin Gate, along with remnants of the city walls, offering a faint outline of the original city's contours. Shenyang Zhongjie, originally named Siping Street, lies north of the Imperial Palace and served as the commercial center of Shengjing City. During the Qing Dynasty, shops lined both sides of Zhongjie, with silk workshops, silver shops, pharmacies, and tea houses standing in close succession. The time-honored brand "Tianyitang" pharmacy, founded in the 4th year of the Daoguang reign (1824), boasts a history of two hundred years, bearing witness to the enduring commercial culture of Shenyang.

The cultural symbols of Shengjing City are also reflected in its religious architecture. In addition to Chang'an Temple, Shenyang preserves religious sites such as Shisheng Temple (Huang Temple), Taiqing Palace, and Zhongxin Temple. Shisheng Temple, first built in the 1st year of the Chongde reign of the Qing Dynasty (1636), was an imperial temple of the Qing court, once housing the Mahakala Golden Buddha and enjoying thriving incense offerings. Taiqing Palace, first built in the 2nd year of the Kangxi reign of the Qing Dynasty (1663), is one of the largest Taoist temples in Northeast China and now serves as the seat of the Liaoning Provincial Taoist Association. Together with the Imperial Palace and imperial mausoleums, these religious buildings form the complete landscape of Shenyang as a renowned historical and cultural city.

During the Fengtian Warlord Era: Zhang's Marshal Mansion and the Dawn of Modern Industry

In the late Qing and early Republic period, Shenyang (then known as Fengtian) became the ruling center of the Fengtian warlord clique led by Zhang Zuolin and his son Zhang Xueliang. In 1914, Zhang Zuolin began constructing his residence on the southeast side of the Shenyang Imperial Palace, which is today's Zhang's Marshal Mansion. The mansion complex consists of three parts: the East Courtyard, the West Courtyard, and buildings outside the courtyard, covering an area of approximately 36,000 square meters. The East Courtyard is the core area of the mansion, featuring a traditional Chinese-style three-courtyard compound, the eclectic Chinese-Western Daqing Building, and the Romanesque Xiaoqing Building. The three-courtyard compound served as Zhang Zuolin's living and working quarters, with intricately carved beams, painted rafters, and winding corridors that reflect the aesthetic tastes of the upper class in Northeast China during the late Qing and early Republic period. The Daqing Building, constructed in 1922, stands three stories tall with plain blue bricks, skillfully combining Roman columns with Chinese-style eaves, making it the most iconic structure in the mansion. General Zhang Xueliang once worked and resided in the Daqing Building, where the famous decision of the "Northeast Flag Replacement" was conceived.

Zhang's Marshal Mansion was not only the private residence of the Zhang father and son but also the central stage for political, military, and diplomatic activities in Northeast China. In the 1928 Huanggutun Incident, Zhang Zuolin was fatally wounded by a Japanese bombing and died from his injuries. On the night of the September 18th Incident in 1931, Zhang Xueliang was in Beiping, and the mansion was occupied by Japanese troops. The rise and fall of the Marshal's Mansion is closely tied to the honor and disgrace of Northeast China in modern times. Today, the Zhang's Marshal's Mansion Museum, as a national key cultural relic protection unit, showcases that turbulent period of history to visitors.

At the same time, Shenyang's modern industry began to take root during the Fengtian warlord era. Zhang Zuolin and his son vigorously developed military industry, establishing enterprises such as the Fengtian Arsenal and the Northeast Arsenal. The Northeast Arsenal (now the Liming Company factory area) was once one of the largest arsenals in Asia at the time, producing over 100 million bullets annually. In addition, Shenyang also saw the emergence of mortar factories, aircraft repair plants, and other military enterprises, laying the groundwork for Shenyang to later become the "Equipment Department of the Republic."

Homeland of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Living Legacy of Shenyang's Traditional Crafts

As a renowned historical and cultural city, Shenyang has nurtured a rich and diverse array of intangible cultural heritage. To date, Shenyang boasts over ten national-level representative intangible cultural heritage projects and more than a hundred provincial and municipal-level projects, covering various categories including traditional crafts, traditional fine arts, traditional dance, traditional opera, and folk customs.

In the realm of traditional crafts, the most representative intangible cultural heritage items in the catering sector include the making techniques of Shenyang Laobian Dumplings, Ma's Shaomai (steamed dumplings), and Li Guilian's Smoked Meat Pancakes. Laobian Dumplings were founded in the 9th year of the Daoguang reign of the Qing Dynasty (1829). Their signature "stir-fried filling" technique—stir-frying the pork filling before wrapping—gives the dumplings rich, savory broth and a fragrant taste. Ma's Shaomai was founded in the 1st year of the Jiaqing reign of the Qing Dynasty (1796). It uses premium flour for the wrappers and a beef-based filling, with wrappers as thin as paper and a pomegranate-like shape. These century-old time-honored brands are not only iconic symbols of Shenyang cuisine but also living fossils of Northeast Chinese food culture.

In the field of traditional fine arts, Shenyang's "Dough Figure Tang" dough sculpting, Fengtian shadow puppetry, and Manchu paper-cutting each showcase distinctive techniques."Dough Figure Tang" dough sculpting uses glutinous rice flour and wheat flour as main ingredients. Through processes of kneading, pinching, rolling, and twisting, it creates lifelike human and animal figures with vibrant colors and exaggerated forms, exuding a rich Northeast folk charm. Fengtian shadow puppetry (also known as donkey-hide shadow play) originated in the Qing Dynasty. Shadow figures are carved from donkey hide and manipulated with rods under lamplight to perform stories. The singing style incorporates elements of Northeast local opera, making it an important vehicle for folk opera culture in the Shenyang region.

In the fields of traditional dance and folk customs, Shenyang's Xibe ethnic "Xili Mama" belief and the Huangsi Temple Fair are folk activities that continue to this day. The Xita area is a Korean ethnic enclave where intangible cultural heritage projects such as Korean nongak (farmers' music and dance) and the art of making tteok (rice cakes) are passed down through living practice. The Huangsi Temple Fair, held annually on the 8th day of the 4th lunar month, attracts hundreds of thousands of residents and tourists, serving as an important window into Shenyang's folk culture. Through heritage workshops, school education, and the integration of culture and tourism, these intangible cultural heritage projects continue to thrive in contemporary society, serving as a vital bond for Shenyang's urban cultural identity.

Echoes of History: The Contemporary Value of Shenyang's Urban Heritage

From the Neolithic Xinle ancestors 7,000 years ago to the beacon fires of the Yan and Qin dynasties' Liaodong Commandery; From the earthen walls of Shenzhou in the Liao and Jin dynasties to the imperial grandeur of Shengjing in the Ming and Qing dynasties; From the Republican-era drama of the Marshal Zhang's Mansion to the industrial glory of the Republic's equipment manufacturing hub—Shenyang's historical lineage runs unbroken, with each era leaving a profound mark on the city's fabric.

Today's Shenyang boasts three World Cultural Heritage sites—the Shenyang Imperial Palace, Zhao Mausoleum of the Qing Dynasty, and Fu Mausoleum of the Qing Dynasty—alongside dozens of museums such as the Marshal Zhang's Mansion Museum, Xinle Ruins Museum, and Liaoning Provincial Museum, as well as historic districts like Zhongjie and Taiyuanjie scattered across the urban area. These cultural treasures are not merely resources for sightseeing; they are the very roots of Shenyang's urban spirit. The boldness, resilience, inclusiveness, and pioneering drive ingrained in Shenyang's people are precisely the products of millennia of historical accumulation.

Amid rapid urbanization today, Shenyang is striving to bring its historical and cultural heritage to life through initiatives such as the conservation plan for historic and cultural cities, the adaptive reuse of industrial heritage, and the introduction of intangible cultural heritage into schools. The "Shengjing Palaces" exhibition at the Shenyang Imperial Palace, the immersive performances at the Marshal Zhang's Mansion, and the industrial tourism project at Laolongkou Distillery are all successful examples of the creative transformation and innovative development of cultural heritage. History is no longer a dusty archive but a vibrant force integrated into modern life.

The September 18th Incident: The Starting Point of Shenyang's Resistance and the Clarion Call of National Awakening

On the night of September 18, 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army deliberately blew up a section of the South Manchuria Railway track near Liutiao Lake in the northern suburbs of Shenyang, blaming Chinese troops for the act, and then bombarded Beidaying, the garrison of the Northeast Army, launching the shocking September 18th Incident. That night, officers and soldiers of the 7th Brigade of the Northeast Army stationed at Beidaying, under fierce Japanese attack, some patriotic troops defied the "non-resistance" order and spontaneously rose up to fight back. Units such as the 3rd Battalion of the 620th Regiment of the 7th Brigade, relying on barracks fortifications, engaged in intense street battles with Japanese forces, killing several enemy soldiers, but were ultimately forced to retreat due to being outnumbered and lacking support. Although the Battle of Beidaying lasted only a few hours, it was the earliest resistance action by Chinese troops during the September 18th Incident, showcasing the patriotic valor of the Northeast Army soldiers.

On the night of the September 18th Incident, other Chinese institutions in Shenyang city also came under Japanese attack. Key departments such as the Northeast Border Defense Command Headquarters, Liaoning Provincial Government, Northeast Arsenal, and Shenyang Aviation Office fell one after another. By the early morning of the next day, Japanese forces had occupied the entire city of Shenyang, with large quantities of weapons, aircraft, and ammunition falling into enemy hands. According to post-war statistics, in Shenyang alone, the Japanese military seized over 260 aircraft, more than 3,000 artillery pieces, over 4,000 machine guns, and more than 100,000 rifles, nearly wiping out the entire arsenal of the Northeastern Army.

The September 18 Incident was not only the beginning of Japanese imperialist armed aggression against China, but also the starting point of China's 14-year War of Resistance. Shenyang, as the site of this national calamity, bears the most painful memories of the Chinese nation. After the incident, the Communist Party of China issued a declaration at the earliest opportunity, calling on the people of the whole country to rise up against Japanese aggression. A group of patriots in Shenyang, such as patriotic intellectuals Yan Baohang and Che Xiangchen, traveled to Beiping, Shanghai, and other places, organizing the Northeastern People's Anti-Japanese National Salvation Association and launching anti-Japanese national salvation movements, sounding the clarion call for the nationwide resistance.

The Manchuria Provincial Committee of the CPC: The Red Nerve Center of Shenyang's Underground Struggle

Before the September 18 Incident, the Communist Party of China had already established a solid organizational foundation in Shenyang. In 1927, the Manchuria Provincial Committee of the CPC was established in Shenyang as the Party's highest leading body in Northeast China, with Chen Weiren, Liu Shaoqi, Lin Zhongdan (Zhang Hao), Chen Tanqiu, and others serving successively as secretaries. The Manchuria Provincial Committee's offices were located at several secret strongholds in Shenyang, including the North Market and industrial districts, leading the workers' movement, peasants' movement, and soldiers' movement across the Northeast.

After the September 18 Incident, the Manchuria Provincial Committee of the CPC went completely underground in Shenyang, continuing to lead the people of the Northeast in their anti-Japanese struggle. On September 19, 1931, the day after the Mukden Incident, the Manchuria Provincial Committee issued the "Declaration Against the Japanese Imperialist Armed Occupation of Manchuria," the first anti-Japanese declaration in Chinese history, issued several days earlier than the statement from the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. Subsequently, the Manchuria Provincial Committee dispatched a large number of outstanding cadres, including Yang Jingyu, Zhao Shangzhi, Zhou Baozhong, and Li Yanlu, deep into various parts of Northeast China to organize anti-Japanese armed forces and establish guerrilla units, laying the organizational foundation for the formation of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army.

Within Shenyang city, underground workers led by the Manchuria Provincial Committee risked their lives to carry out intelligence gathering, propaganda and mobilization, and material transport operations. Using their occupational identities as railway workers, postal carriers, and shop clerks as cover, they established secret transportation routes in the heart of the Japanese puppet regime's territory, continuously channeling anti-Japanese supplies and intelligence to the guerrilla zones. In 1936, due to betrayal by a traitor, the Manchuria Provincial Committee's headquarters suffered severe damage, with many leading members arrested and killed, yet the Party's underground organization was not completely eradicated; instead, it continued to fight in a more dispersed and covert manner until victory in the War of Resistance.

Shenyang Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies: The Heroic Struggle of Grassroots Forces

After the Mukden Incident, patriotic soldiers and civilians in Shenyang and its surrounding areas spontaneously organized themselves, forming multiple anti-Japanese volunteer armies to wage guerrilla warfare behind enemy lines. These volunteer armies were composed of diverse elements, including disbanded Northeastern Army soldiers, farmers, workers, intellectuals, and outlaw heroes. Despite their crude equipment and lack of training, driven by their love for their homeland and hatred for the invaders, they engaged in desperate battles against the Japanese forces across the Liaoshen region.

Gao Pengzhen, a leader of the "outlaws" in the northern suburbs of Shenyang, resolutely raised the banner of resistance after the Mukden Incident, organizing the "Northeast National Salvation Army," active in the Xinmin, Faku, and Zhangwu areas. His slogan, "Point the gun outward, do not fight fellow countrymen," spread widely throughout the western Liaoning region. In 1932, Gao Pengzhen's unit ambushed a Japanese transport convoy in Zhangwu County, killing dozens of Japanese soldiers and seizing large quantities of weapons and ammunition, which greatly boosted the local people's morale in resisting Japan. Similar to Gao Pengzhen, there were dozens of other leaders of anti-Japanese volunteer armies around Shenyang, each fighting independently. Though lacking unified command, they effectively pinned down Japanese forces and delayed the Japanese occupation of the entire Northeast.

People from all walks of life in Shenyang city also supported the volunteer armies in various ways. Chambers of commerce and gentry donated money and goods, pharmacies and clinics secretly treated the wounded, and railway workers provided intelligence and transportation assistance. In 1932, multiple bombing attacks targeting Japanese puppet institutions occurred in Shenyang. Though mostly carried out by volunteer armies or patriotic activists, the specific organizers remain a subject of debate to this day, becoming an unsolved mystery in Shenyang's war of resistance history. These scattered yet tenacious acts of resistance, though unable to prevent the fall of Shenyang, proclaimed to the world: the people of Shenyang did not yield, and the people of the Northeast did not yield.

Early Exploration of Anti-Japanese Democratic Regimes: The Establishment of the Northeast People's Revolutionary Army

As the struggle of the anti-Japanese volunteer armies deepened, the Chinese Communist Party began to establish anti-Japanese armed forces and regimes directly led by the Party in areas around Shenyang. Between 1932 and 1933, the Manchuria Provincial Committee of the CCP successively organized multiple Red Army guerrilla units and the Northeast People's Revolutionary Army in eastern and western Liaoning, some of which operated in the suburbs of Shenyang and areas such as Fushun and Benxi.

In 1934, the Independent Division of the First Army of the Northeast People's Revolutionary Army, under the leadership of Yang Jingyu, operated in the mountainous areas of eastern Liaoning, launching multiple attacks on Japanese puppet strongholds along the Shenyang-Dandong railway line. In 1935, the Northeast People's Revolutionary Army was reorganized into the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, with Yang Jingyu serving as commander and political commissar of the First Army. Although the First Army of the Anti-Japanese United Army primarily used the Changbai Mountain region as its main base, its subordinate units repeatedly penetrated the outskirts of Shenyang to carry out sabotage raids and ambushes, disrupting Japanese puppet transportation lines and harassing enemy logistics and supply routes. The Japanese puppet authorities in Shenyang were forced to strengthen their defenses, adding pillboxes and sentry posts around the city's outskirts, which greatly drained Japanese military manpower and resources.

In terms of building anti-Japanese base areas, the Manchuria Provincial Committee of the Chinese Communist Party attempted to establish small guerrilla base areas in the mountainous eastern part of Shenyang (in the border area of today's Fushun and Benxi), setting up provisional administrative organs and carrying out mass work such as rent and interest reduction and mobilizing young people to join the army. Although these base areas could not hold out long due to repeated "suppression campaigns" by Japanese puppet forces, they accumulated valuable experience for the subsequent establishment of democratic anti-Japanese regimes in Northeast China. In 1936, the Manchuria Provincial Committee of the Chinese Communist Party was abolished, and party organizations in the Northeast were divided into provincial committees for South Manchuria, East Manchuria, North Manchuria, and Jidong according to the operational areas of the Anti-Japanese United Army units, marking a more arduous phase in the anti-Japanese struggle in the Shenyang region.

Underground Anti-Japanese Activities in Shenyang City: Intelligence Warfare and Propaganda Warfare

Throughout the period of the puppet Manchukuo, Shenyang, as "Fengtian City," was one of the political, military, and economic centers of Japanese puppet rule in Northeast China. The Japanese puppet authorities established in Shenyang the Kwantung Army Headquarters, the Fengtian Gendarmerie, the Police Department, and other vast military, police, and secret service agencies, imposing strict fascist rule over the citizens. However, even under such extreme repression, underground anti-Japanese activities in Shenyang City never ceased.

Intelligence work was an important field in the underground anti-Japanese struggle in Shenyang. Secret intelligence organizations led by the Chinese Communist Party, as well as Soviet intelligence agencies, Kuomintang underground organizations, and other forces, all waged intricate intelligence warfare in Shenyang. In 1938, Gong Tianmin, an underground CCP member, opened a business called "Tiandexin" in Shenyang, using it as cover to gather military intelligence on the Japanese puppet regime and transmit it via secret radio to the Chongqing side. Gong Tianmin's intelligence group obtained important information such as the deployment of Japanese forces in Northeast China and railway transport plans, providing reference for Allied strategic bombing of Japan. There were multiple similar intelligence organizations in Shenyang, acting like daggers thrust into the enemy's heart—though they did not fight directly, they played an irreplaceable strategic role.

The propaganda war was equally fierce. The Japanese puppet authorities strictly controlled public opinion and suppressed all anti-Japanese speech. However, Shenyang's underground anti-Japanese organizations still awakened the patriotic consciousness of the people by distributing leaflets, posting slogans, and singing anti-Japanese songs. In 1942, progressive young students in Shenyang organized a "Reading Society," secretly circulating progressive books and periodicals and discussing the nation's future; some members later went to anti-Japanese base areas such as Jin-Cha-Ji and Yan'an to join the revolution. Workers at the Shenyang railway factory also repeatedly engaged in slowdowns, sabotage of machinery, and other activities, using passive resistance to oppose Japanese colonial rule.

Famous Battles: Anti-Japanese Combat Around Shenyang and the Liberation of the City

Throughout the War of Resistance Against Japan, no large-scale frontal battles occurred within Shenyang's urban area itself, but anti-Japanese fighting around Shenyang never ceased. Between 1932 and 1945, the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, anti-Japanese volunteer forces, and other armed groups engaged in dozens of battles of varying scale against Japanese and puppet troops in Shenyang's suburbs, Liaozhong, Xinmin, Faku, and other areas.

Among these, the "Battle of Shenyang City Assault" in March 1932 was particularly legendary. Anti-Japanese volunteer leader Geng Jizhou led over a thousand troops in a night raid on Shenyang's Dabei Gate, briefly breaking into the city and engaging in street fighting with Japanese forces before withdrawing due to Japanese reinforcements. Although this battle failed to recapture Shenyang, it shattered the Japanese myth that "Shenyang was as solid as iron," greatly boosting the anti-Japanese confidence of the people in Northeast China. In 1936, a detachment of the First Army of the Anti-Japanese United Army ambushed a Japanese grain transport convoy at Lishizhai, southeast of Shenyang, killing over twenty Japanese soldiers and seizing large quantities of grain and ammunition. In 1943, railway workers at Sujiatun on the outskirts of Shenyang cooperated with an Anti-Japanese United Army squad to blow up a Japanese ammunition train, inflicting heavy losses on the Japanese forces.

On August 8, 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, and one million Soviet troops entered Northeast China. On August 15, Japan announced its unconditional surrender. On August 16, the Soviet vanguard troops entered Shenyang, and the Japanese troops stationed in Shenyang surrendered. On August 21, the Soviet forces gained complete control of Shenyang. After fourteen years of occupation, Shenyang was finally liberated. However, the victory in the War of Resistance did not bring lasting peace, and Shenyang soon fell into a complex situation of rivalry between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party.

During the War of Liberation: Shenyang's Support for the Front and Urban Takeover

After the victory of the War of Resistance, the Chinese Communist Party quickly dispatched large numbers of cadres and troops to the Northeast to establish revolutionary base areas. In November 1945, the Shenyang Municipal Committee of the Chinese Communist Party was established, with Kong Yuan serving as its secretary. However, in accordance with the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance and the agreements from the KMT-CCP negotiations, the Communist forces temporarily withdrew from Shenyang, and the Kuomintang army entered the city in March 1946. Thereafter, Shenyang became the center of Kuomintang rule in the Northeast until 1948.

During the period of Kuomintang rule, the working class and progressive students of Shenyang, under the leadership of the underground organizations of the Chinese Communist Party, launched vigorous struggles against hunger, against civil war, and against persecution. Workers from enterprises such as the Shenyang Locomotive and Rolling Stock Plant and the Shenyang Arsenal repeatedly went on strike, demanding better treatment and opposing civil war. In 1947, students in Shenyang held demonstrations against civil war and hunger, which were suppressed by Kuomintang military police, leading to the "May 20" massacre and arousing nationwide indignation.

Meanwhile, the Chinese Communist Party extensively mobilized the masses in rural areas around Shenyang, carrying out land reform, establishing people's political power, and organizing support-the-front teams. During the Liaoshen Campaign, people in the liberated areas around Shenyang enthusiastically supported the front, forming stretcher teams and transport teams to deliver grain, ammunition, and wounded soldiers to the front lines. According to statistics, in just the two counties of Liaozhong and Xinmin, tens of thousands of civilian support workers, thousands of stretchers, and hundreds of carts were mobilized, making tremendous contributions to the victory of the campaign.

On November 2, 1948, the Northeast Field Army captured Shenyang, and Shenyang was declared liberated. After entering the city, the People's Liberation Army strictly implemented urban policies, quickly restored social order, and protected factories, schools, and cultural relics. On the very day of Shenyang's liberation, the Political Department of the Northeast Field Army issued the "Code of Conduct for Entering the City," requiring troops to be strictly disciplined and to protect urban facilities. The liberation of Shenyang marked the victorious conclusion of the Liaoshen Campaign and the liberation of the entire Northeast, laying a solid foundation for the victory of the nationwide liberation war.

Base Area Construction: Political Power and People's Livelihood in the Liberated Areas Around Shenyang

During the War of Liberation, counties around Shenyang such as Liaozhong, Xinmin, Faku, and Kangping were successively liberated and established people's democratic governments. Although these liberated areas were small in size and limited in population, they played an important role in supporting the front lines, building the rear areas, and training cadres.

Land reform was the core content of construction in the liberated areas. Between 1947 and 1948, work teams organized by the CPC Liaozhong County Committee and Xinmin County Committee went deep into the countryside, mobilizing poor peasants and farm laborers, struggling against landlords, and redistributing land, completely abolishing the feudal land system. After land reform, the vast majority of peasants obtained land, their enthusiasm for production reached unprecedented heights, and grain output increased substantially, providing ample military grain supplies for the front lines. At the same time, land reform greatly heightened the political consciousness of peasants, and large numbers of young peasants enthusiastically enlisted to join the army and participate in the war; in Liaozhong County alone, several thousand young people joined the People's Liberation Army.

The construction of political power in the liberated areas emphasized democracy and the rule of law. Each county successively convened people's representative conferences to elect county government leadership bodies. County governments established departments for civil affairs, finance, education, and public security, and set up district- and village-level political organizations, forming a complete administrative system. In fiscal matters, the liberated areas implemented a policy of reasonable burdens, abolishing the exorbitant taxes and miscellaneous levies of the Nationalist period to reduce the burden on peasants. In education, the liberated areas established primary schools and night schools, launched literacy campaigns, and raised the cultural level of the masses.

The liberated areas around Shenyang also undertook important rear-area support missions. During the Liaoshen Campaign, the liberated areas set up multiple military supply stations, grain depots, and casualty transfer points, providing a steady stream of material supplies and medical support to frontline troops. Women's organizations in the liberated areas also took active action, rushing to make military shoes and uniforms for the troops and nursing the wounded, demonstrating the immense support of the people for the War of Liberation.

Portraits of Heroes: The Roll of Martyrs in Shenyang's Resistance and Liberation

During Shenyang's fourteen years of resistance against Japanese aggression and the three-year War of Liberation, countless heroic figures emerged whose names and deeds form the most brilliant chapter in the city's red memory.

Yang Jingyu, originally named Ma Shangde, a native of Queshan, Henan, served as Commander-in-Chief and Political Commissar of the First Route Army of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army. Sent by the Manchuria Provincial Committee of the Communist Party of China in 1932 to work in southern Manchuria, he fought for a long time in the mountainous areas of eastern Liaoning around Shenyang. In February 1940, Yang Jingyu died a heroic death in Mengjiang (now Jingyu County). When Japanese soldiers cut open his abdomen, they found only grass roots, tree bark, and cotton wadding in his stomach—not a single grain of food. Although Yang Jingyu was not a native of Shenyang, the First Route Army he led fought many battles around Shenyang, and his spirit profoundly influenced the anti-Japanese will of the Shenyang people.

Zhao Shangzhi, a native of Chaoyang, Liaoning, was the commander of the Third Army of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, leading his troops in operations across the northern areas of Shenyang. He was a fierce and skilled fighter who struck terror into the hearts of the Japanese and puppet troops, and the Japanese once offered a reward of 10,000 yuan for his capture. In 1942, Zhao Shangzhi was wounded and captured while attacking the Wutonghe Police Substation, and he died a heroic martyr. In Shenyang's anti-Japanese propaganda, Zhao Shangzhi's name, like Yang Jingyu's, became a symbol of unyielding spirit.

The local anti-Japanese martyrs of Shenyang are equally worthy of remembrance. Zhang Xiyao, a native of Shenyang, joined the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Army after the September 18 Incident, later joined the Chinese Communist Party, and worked long-term in underground activities before sacrificing his life in 1945. Li Guishun, a young woman from Shenyang, secretly organized women's anti-Japanese activities under Japanese puppet rule; after being arrested, she remained steadfast and died a heroic death. There were also countless unnamed heroes who may not have left their names behind, but their blood dyed the land of Shenyang red, and their spirit forged the backbone of Shenyang.

During the War of Liberation, PLA commanders and soldiers from Shenyang also made tremendous sacrifices. In the Liaoshen Campaign, tens of thousands of soldiers from the Northeast fought fiercely on the battlefield, and many gave their young lives. After the liberation of Shenyang, the People's Government built the "Northeast Liberation Monument" in Zhongshan Square to commemorate the martyrs who sacrificed their lives in the War of Liberation in the Northeast.

Memory and Commemoration: The Contemporary Inheritance of Shenyang's Red Cultural Heritage

Shenyang's red cultural heritage is the most precious spiritual wealth of this city. Memorial facilities such as the September 18th History Museum, the Former Site Memorial Hall of the Manchuria Provincial Committee of the CPC, the Northeast Liberation Monument, and the Martyrs' Cemetery of the War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea form the core route of Shenyang's red tourism.

The September 18th History Museum is located on Wanghua South Street in Dadong District, built near the original site of the September 18th Incident—the location of the Liutiao Lake bombing. The museum's exterior resembles an open desk calendar, with the left page engraved with the date "September 18, 1931" and the right page recording the course of the incident. The museum houses a large collection of historical photographs, artifacts, and scene reconstructions, comprehensively presenting the tragic history of the September 18th Incident and the fourteen years of resistance in the Northeast. Every year on September 18th, air raid sirens sound across Shenyang, reminding people not to forget national humiliation and to revitalize China.

The Former Site Memorial Hall of the Manchuria Provincial Committee of the CPC is located on Huangsi Road in Heping District, the former seat of the Manchuria Provincial Committee. The memorial hall preserves the underground office of that time and displays historical materials on the Manchuria Provincial Committee's leadership of the anti-Japanese struggle in the Northeast. This is not only a red tourism attraction, but also an important base for Party spirit education and patriotic education.

The Martyrs' Cemetery of the War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea is located on the east side of Beiling Park, where famous combat heroes such as Huang Jiguang, Qiu Shaoyun, and Yang Gensi are buried. As a rear base during the War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea, Shenyang undertook important tasks such as treating the wounded, transporting supplies, and replenishing troops. The Martyrs' Memorial Hall within the cemetery showcases the heroic deeds of the Chinese People's Volunteers, serving as an important carrier of Shenyang people's patriotic spirit.

In recent years, Shenyang has actively promoted the protection and revitalization of red cultural resources. The September 18th History Museum has launched a special exhibition titled "Shenyang in the War of Resistance," the Former Site Memorial Hall of the CPC Manchuria Provincial Committee has carried out a series of "Red Lecture Hall" activities, and attractions such as the Shenyang Imperial Palace and Zhang's Mansion have also incorporated red cultural elements. The red tourism routes connect the sites of the War of Resistance, memorials of the Liberation War, and industrial heritage, allowing visitors to experience Shenyang's red heritage as they travel.